A Novel Nitric Oxide Donor, S-Nitroso-N-Pivaloyl-D-Penicillamine, Activates a Non-Neuronal Cardiac Cholinergic System to Synthesize Acetylcholine and Augments Cardiac Function
Shino Oikawaa Yuko Kaia Asuka Manoa Shigeo Nakamurab
Yoshihiko Kakinumaa
aDepartment of Bioregulatory Science (Physiology), Nippon Medical School Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan, bDepartment of Chemistry, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
Key Words
S-nitroso-N-pivaloyl-D-penicillamine (SNPiP) • Non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system (NNCCS) • Acetylcholine • Heart • Nitric oxide (NO)
Abstract
Background/Aims: In a previous study, we reported that cardiomyocytes were equipped with non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system (NNCCS) to synthesize acetylcholine (ACh), which is indispensable for maintaining the basic physiological cardiac functions. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize a pharmacological inducer of NNCCS. Methods: To identify a pharmacological inducer of NNCCS, we screened several chemical compounds with chemical structures similar to the structure of S-nitroso-N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine (SNAP). Preliminary investigation revealed that SNAP is an inducer of non-neuronal ACh synthesis. We screened potential pharmacological inducers in H9c2 and HEK293 cells using western blot analysis, luciferase assay, and measurements of intracellular cGMP, NO2 and ACh levels. The effects of the screened compound on cardiac function of male C57BL6 mice were also evaluated using cardiac catheter system. Results: Among the tested compounds, we selected S-nitroso-N-pivaloyl-D-penicillamine (SNPiP), which gradually elevated the intracellular cGMP levels and nitric oxide (NO) levels in H9c2 and HEK293 cells. These elevated levels resulted in the gradual transactivation and translation of the choline acetyltransferase gene. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo SNPiP treatment elevated ACh levels for 72 h. SNPiP-treated mice upregulated their cardiac function without tachycardia but with enhanced diastolic function resulting in improved cardiac output. The effect of SNPiP was dependent on SNPiP nitroso group as verified by the ineffectiveness of N-pivaloyl–D-penicillamine (PiP), which lacks the nitroso group. Conclusion: SNPiP is identified to be one of the important pharmacological candidates for induction of NNCCS.
Introduction
We have thus far advocated a novel concept that cardiomyocytes possess a system to produce acetylcholine (ACh), a non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system (NNCCS). It is crucial for maintaining the indispensable physiological functions in the heart as well as the brain, which includes conferring ischemia-resistance, accelerated cell-cell communication and vagus nerve-mediated anti-stress effects on the central nervous system (CNS) [1-4]. We have also explored a modality to eventually activate or accelerate NNCCS, and thereafter, we reported that NNCCS can be activated pharmacologically and physically [1, 5]. We have previously demonstrated that donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, is an inducer for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Donepezil transcriptionally and translationally upregulates the enzyme to consequently enhance the ACh production in cultured cardiomyocytes [1]. Moreover, we have also reported that remote ischemic preconditioning can also upregulate NNCCS [2, 5]. This modality, with its capability to induce NNCCS, led us to hypothesize that NNCCS may be regulated through the CNS pathway via the vagus nerve that directly connects the heart with the brain [4-7].
Furthermore, to identify agents that can directly upregulate NNCCS, which is independent of the effects related to neuronal activity and synaptic modulation in the cholinergic system, we screened for several pharmacological agents. Among these, we initially focused on compounds with chemical structures that resembled the structure of a nitric oxide (NO) donor, S-nitroso-N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine (SNAP). Additionally, we synthesized compounds possessing different functional groups based on the SNAP structure to investigate its property to upregulate NNCCS. Consequently, we identified a compound, SNPiP, that could enhance NNCCS to produce cardiac ACh, leading to increased cardiac function.
Materials and Methods
Synthesis of a new compound possessing a backbone that partly resembles the chemical structure of SNAP
SNAP is a chemical compound comprising S-nitrosothiol and penicillamine and has gained attention due to its NO releasing property [8]. Our preliminary experiments revealed that SNAP-treated cells upregulated the ChAT protein expression and ACh synthesis. Therefore, we used a compound possessing the basic chemical backbone of SNAP and further modified their functional groups attached to the base structure. In the penicillamine structure, we specifically focused on the amino group and synthesized several compounds resembling the basic SNAP structure with this group. Various other structures were attached to the amino group, including the reported reference compounds. We prepared S-nitroso-N-benzoyl-D-penicillamine (SNBP), S-nitroso-N-succinoyl-D-penicillamine (SNSP), S-nitroso-N-pivaloyl-D-penicillamine (SNPiP) as well as the previously reported compounds S-nitroso-N-heptanoyl-D-penicillamine (SNHP) and S-nitroso-N-valeryl-D-penicillamine (SNVP). SNPiP was synthesized in a 20 mL tetrahydrofuran: water (4:1) solution. The reaction was carried out at 0 °C for 30 min. 6.7 mmol (1.0 g) of D-penicillamine was reacted with 6.7 mmol (0.81 g) of pivaloyl chloride in the presence of triethylamine (13.4 mmol). The reaction was allowed to continue for further 12 h at room temperature. Tetrahydrofuran was evaporated, and this mixture was added to hydrochloric acid to obtain 621 mg of N-pivaloyl-D-penicillamine (PiP). The reaction between 2.5 mmol PiP with 5 mmol sodium nitrate resulted in 237 mg of SNPiP, a green powder. NMR analysis of the compound confirmed its high purity. The other compounds were also synthesized via the modified methods used for SNPiP synthesis. The chemical structure of SNPiP is shown in Fig. 1 in comparison with SNAP and PiP. SNPiP has structural similarity to PiP; however, PiP lacked the nitroso group. PiP was used to understand the role of nitroso group in the beneficial effects of SNPiP. In a preliminary experiment, HEK293 cells were confirmed to possess the ability to synthesize ACh, which can be easily detected by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Luciferase assay for measuring ChAT transcriptional activity
As previously reported in our study, ChAT promoter region of 2.0 kb length was subcloned into a luciferase vector (Toyo B-Net Co., LTD, Tokyo, Japan) [1]. HEK293 cells were cultured on type I collagen (Nitta Gelatin Inc., Osaka, Japan)-coated dish in low glucose Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM; FUJIFILM Wako Pure Chemical Corporation, Osaka Japan) with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Thermo Fisher Scientific K.K., Tokyo, Japan) and antibiotics (FUJIFILM Wako Pure Chemical Corporation). HEK 293 cells or H9c2 cells (1x105 cells / well) cultured in a 24-well plate were transfected using Effectene Transfection Reagent (QIAGEN, Venlo, Netherlands) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Cells were treated with either one of the synthesized chemical compounds or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) 48 h post-transfection. Cells were collected at 8, 16, or 24 h after the treatment and lysed to obtain samples for measuring the luciferase activity. The concentration of SNPiP (dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide) for in vitro experiments was optimized at 1 mM. Data were obtained from six to nine independent experiments.
Western blot analysis
As previously reported, HEK 293 cells, H9c2 cells or C6 cells, treated with compounds, were lysed in a sampling buffer [1-4]. Proteins were isolated from the excised liver, heart or skeletal muscle of C57BL6 mouse. Equal amounts of protein from different treatment groups were electrophoresed in 10% acrylamide gel and transferred onto a PVDF membrane. The membrane was blocked with 4% skim milk and incubated with a goat anti-ChAT polyclonal antibody (1:2000, Merck Millipore, Temecula, CA, USA), followed by incubation with an anti-goat IgG antibody (1:1000, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, CA, USA) at room temperature. The signals were detected by D-DiGit Gel Scanner (LI-COR Biotechnology, Lincoln, NE, USA) via ImmunoStar LD (FUJIFILM Wako Pure Chemical Corporation). Representative data were obtained from four to six independent experiments.
Measurement of intracellular ACh contents
Intracellular ACh contents were measured via HPLC following a previously described method [1]. HEK293 cells cultured in a 10 cm culture dish were lysed with 1 mL lysis buffer comprising 0.1 M perchloric acid, 0.1 mM EDTA, 10-8 M isopropyl homocholine and 0.1 mM physostigmine. The samples were centrifuged for 15 min at 0°C with 20, 000 x g, and the supernatant was adjusted to a pH > 6.5 with 1 M KHCO3 and was filtrated through a Millipore column (Amicon Ultra 0.5 mL). Ten microliters of the sample was used for measuring ACh levels. HEK293 cells treated with the compound of interest were lysed 24 h to 72 h post-treatment for measuring the ACh levels. For in vivo measurements, the murine cardiac ventricles alone were excised. Thereafter, the procedure to measure ACh levels was identical to those mentioned above (n = 3-6 for each time point).
cGMP measurement of HEK293 cells
cGMP was measured in compound-treated HEK293 cells using the Cyclic GMP EIA kit (Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI, USA) as per manufacturer’s instructions, and the absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 420 nm. Sampling of the compound-treated HEK293 cells was performed within 10 min of the treatment (n = 2-4 for each time point).
NO measurement
HEK293 cells cultured in a 10 cm culture dish, treated with SNPiP, were scraped in PBS. The cells were sonicated at level 12 for 15 s using Microson Ultrasonic Cell Disruptor XL2000 (Farmingdale, NY, USA), followed by centrifugation at 14, 000 rpm at 4°C for 10 min. The supernatant was used for NO2 measurement using the QuantiChrom Nitric Oxide Assay Kit (BioAssay Systems, Heyward, CA, USA). NO was oxidized to NO2 and hence the level of NO2 is a measure of NO production in the cell. The sample optical density (OD) was measured at 540 nm and cellular NO2 levels, and hence the NO production, were calculated from the standard curve (n = 2-4 for each time point).
Evaluation of cardiac function in compound-treated mice
The murine cardiac function was measured using a catheter system (ADVantage system, Transonic Science, Inc., Ithaca, NY, USA) [4]. Male C57BL6 mice (n = 8-15 for each group) were intraperitoneally injected with SNPiP or PiP (60 pmol/g BW/dose) once. The cardiac function was measured 72 h later. The dose was optimized based on the hemodynamic adverse effects observed in our preliminary experiments [3].
Statistical analysis
Data were represented as means ± standard errors. Comparison between two groups was performed using an unpaired Student’s t-test. For multiple group comparisons, difference was evaluated by non-repeated one-way ANOVA, followed by post-hoc Dunnett’s tests. Differences were considered significant at a P value < 0.05.
Results
SNAP increases cellular ChAT protein expression
H9c2 cells derived from rat myocardium were treated with SNAP at various concentrations (1 nM-1000 mM) to induce ChAT protein expression. The ChAT protein expression increased 8 h after treatment with 1 mM SNAP treatment [148 ± 2 %, P < 0.01, F(2, 15) = 60.4] and peaked at 16 h [183 ± 3 %, P < 0.01, F(2, 15) = 208.7] (Fig. 2A).
Moreover, SNAP increased the ChAT expression not only in H9c2 cells but also in HEK293 cells, and elevated ChAT expression at 16 h [lane 6 in Fig. 2B, 141 ± 3 %, P < 0.01, F(6, 21) = 133.4]. SNAP showed similar results in rat C6 cells (data not shown). Collectively, this suggested that SNAP activated the pivotal ACh synthesizing enzyme in various types of cells.
Transcriptional activity is increased by SNAP-derivatives with a different time course
To investigate whether the chemical compounds with structure similar to that of SNAP transactivated the ChAT promoter activity, we compared the luciferase activity of compound-treated (1 mM each) HEK293 cells. As shown in Fig. 2B, luciferase activity at 8 h after the treatment was slightly higher in SNHP- (lane 2: 113.8 ± 4.9 %), SNVP- (lane 4: 118.5 ± 1.6 %), and SNPiP- (lane 5: 110.0 ± 4.6 %) treated cells compared to the luciferase activity in SNAP-treated cells (lane 6: 105.9 ± 0.8 %). Furthermore, in contrast to the other derivatives, a delayed elevation in ChAT protein expression was observed in SNPiP-treated cells at 16 h [Fig. 2B, lane 5: 158 ± 2 %, P < 0.01 vs. control and SNAP, F(6, 21) = 133.4], suggesting that SNPiP has a distinctive pattern for ChAT upregulation. Similarly, a delayed elevation in ChAT protein expression was observed at 48 h (Fig. 2C, 132 ± 3 % vs control, P < 0.01, t = 20.87), suggesting that the ChAT expression was gradually activated in SNPiP-treated cells.
Intracellular ACh synthesis is upregulated by SNPiP
SNPiP enhanced the ACh levels at 16 h (Fig. 3, lane 5: 6.6 ± 0.2 x 10-9 M) in HEK293 cells. The other compounds were also able to moderately increase the ACh levels (lane 1-4, 6). These results suggested that SNPiP activated ACh synthesis gradually. Therefore, further experiments focused on SNPiP.
SNPiP upregulates cellular NO production at a slower rate than SNAP
As shown in Fig. 4, the NO release by SNAP rapidly increased [NO2: 1.47 ± 0.4 nmol (20 min) vs. 0.98 ± 0.23 nmol (0 min)], compared to the NO release of SNPiP, at 20 min. In contrast, slow release of NO by SNPiP was observed and the release peaked at around 60 min [NO2: 2.26 ± 0.62 nmol (60 min) vs. 0.97 ± 0.03 nmol (0 min)]. This suggested that in SNPiP the NO release was gradual and the peak release was delayed.
SNPiP modulates cGMP levels more slowly than SNAP
Next, we investigated the time course of cGMP levels in the two treated cells (Fig. 5). Concurring with the results from the NO release, SNAP rapidly upregulated the cGMP levels, which peaked within 2 min of treatment (0.58 ± 0.02 pmol/mL). In contrast, SNPiP gradually upregulated the cGMP levels, which did not attain a peak value during the observation period of 10 min (10 min: 0.68 ± 0.22 pmol/mL; Fig. 5). Even when compared with the peak levels obtained with SNBP (at 1 min), SNPiP altered cGMP response in a unique pattern, suggesting that SNPiP slowly modulates a signal transduction messenger, compared to the cGMP response by SNAP-treatment.
SNPiP activates ACh synthesis with its delayed mode
Based on the results thus far, it was expected that SNPiP enhanced ACh synthesis at a slower rate than SNAP. Further, HEK293 cells were treated with 1 mM SNPiP and the intracellular ACh levels were measured for 72 h (Fig. 6). SNAP initially enhanced ACh synthesis at 8 h, followed by a moderate increase at 36 h, with the extents of increase being 153 ± 6 %. In contrast, SNPiP continued to further enhance ACh synthesis to 264 ± 5 % at 48 h [vs. SNAP 115 ± 1 %, P < 0.01, F(8, 35) = 52.7] and 166.9 ± 9 % at 72 h [vs. SNAP 104 ± 8 %, P < 0.01, F(8, 35) = 52.7]. These results clearly indicated that SNPiP upregulated ACh synthesis for a prolonged period.
SNPiP upregulates ChAT expression in the heart, leading to elevated cardiac ACh synthesis
Male C57BL6 mice were intraperitoneally injected with SNPiP, and 24-72 h later, ChAT protein expression was evaluated in the heart. At 48 h, the cardiac ChAT protein expression was enhanced (Fig. 7), as well as at 72 h (Fig. 8). In contrast, upregulation of the ChAT expression was not observed in other organs such as the skeletal muscle and liver (data not shown).
ACh levels were measured in the ventricles excised from SNPiP-injected (60 pmol/g BW/dose) C57BL6 murine heart. Fig. 7 shows that at 72 h following the injection, the cardiac ACh level was significantly increased to 63.1 ± 11.5 x 10-8 M/g tissue, compared with the control ACh level of 18.4 ± 4.1 x 10-8 M/g tissue (P < 0.01, t = 3.68). While this upregulation was moderate at 24 h (45.4 ± 20.6 x 10-8 M/g tissue) compared to ACh levels in the control (17.0 ± 6.8 x 10-8 M/g tissue, P < 0.05, t = 2.64), the increase was more remarkable at 72 h. These results suggest that SNPiP activates in vivo ACh synthesis specifically in the murine heart via NNCCS.
SNPiP enhances cardiac function in mice
Following the intraperitoneal injection of SNPiP, the cardiac function was evaluated at 24, 48, and 72h. While cardiac function was affected only slightly at 24h, a significant improvement was evident at 72 h (Fig. 9). At this point, stroke volume (SV) was significantly increased (28.5 ± 1.6 mL vs. 20.7 ± 1.2 mL, P < 0.01, t = 3.67) along with the end-diastolic volume (EDV: 35.3 ± 9.1 mL vs. 26.1 ± 1.3 mL, P < 0.05, t = 2.61). Consequently, this led to an increased cardiac output (CO: 11272 ± 901 mL/min vs. 8241 ± 526 mL/min, P < 0.01, t = 2.76) and increased ejection fraction (EF: 87.5 ± 1.3 % vs. 79.5 ± 3.5 %, P < 0.05, t = 2.17) associated with increased end-systolic pressure (ESP: 91.8 ± 2.3mmHg vs. 84.4 ± 2.7 mmHg, P < 0.05, t = 2.04). However, the heart rate (HR) was not affected (394 ± 13 vs. 399 ± 14, Fig. 9). Even at 24 h, the beneficial effect of SNPiP was already visible in several parameters (SV: 35.0 ± 3.1 mL vs. 25.3 ± 1.6 mL, P < 0.01, t = 2.79; EDV: 40.7 ± 2.8 mL vs. 31.1 ± 2.4 mL, P < 0.05, t = 2.63; CO: 16246 ± 1320 mL/min vs. 11624 ± 1172 mL/min, P < 0.05, t = 2.62; HR: 471 ± 25 vs. 453 ± 25), and the effects became gradually evident with more significant improvement in the cardiac function parameters at 72 h.
A derivative of SNPiP without the nitroso group, PiP, loses the SNPiP-specific potential to upregulate the non-neuronal ACh synthesis system
To further understand which component of the chemical structure in SNPiP contributes to the induction of NNCCS, we synthesized PiP, which lacks the nitroso group of SNPiP (Fig. 1). In 1 mM SNPiP-treated HEK293 cells, upregulated ChAT promoter activity (155.5 ± 11.1%) was observed at 72 h. However, the ChAT activity of PiP-treated cells significantly decreased to 90.7 ± 3.1% [P < 0.01 vs. control and PiP, F(2, 18) = 23.6, Fig 8]. Consistently, PiP did not upregulate the ChAT protein expression. This suggested that the nitroso group of SNPiP was responsible for ChAT induction.
Seventy two hours after PiP administration in mice, it did not increase SV [PiP: 23.7 ± 0.4 mL vs. SNPiP 31.5 ± 2.0, F(2, 26) = 13.7, P < 0.01], EDV [PiP: 31.6 ± 0.8 mL vs. SNPiP 38.2 ± 3.0, F(2, 26) = 6.0, P < 0.05], or CO [PiP: 9085.3 ± 434.4 mL/min vs. SNPiP 12639.1 ± 1076.9, F(2, 26) = 8.2, P < 0.01] to the levels observed with SNPiP-treatment. These results also indicate that the nitroso group is responsible for increasing the murine cardiac function via NNCCS upregulation.
Discussion
This is the first study to report a novel compound SNPiP, which plays a pivotal role in activating the non-neuronal cholinergic system (NNCS), and therefore, acts as an inducer of NNCS. This compound slowly upregulated the transcription and translation of ChAT in vitro, gradually increasing ACh synthesis. This involved a delayed peak of NO release and intracellular cGMP levels. Thereafter, SNPiP was revealed to activate ACh synthesis in the murine heart in vivo. In contrast, SNPiP did not activate ACh synthesis in the skeletal muscle, which is believed to be responsible for non-neuronal ACh synthesis. SNPiP further increased the mice cardiac function with augmented SV, ESV, and CO. Therefore, it is proposed that SNPiP plays a role of an activator of NNCCS to increase cardiac function.
We have earlier reported that cardiomyocytes produce ACh using the NNCCS [1]. Since the establishment of this concept [9-14], we have revealed the physiological and pathophysiological roles of NNCCS to advocate for its integral effects in a general cardiac function, which includes accelerating cell-cell communication and angiogenesis [2, 3, 15], protecting cardiomyocytes from ROS and ischemic insults [2, 3], and modulating cardiac energy metabolism [3, 16].
These pivotal roles of NNCCS, therefore, have prompted us to further search for a modality to activate NNCCS using the pharmacological approach using donepezil [1, 15] and remote ischemic preconditioning [2, 5]. In our previous study, we identified that donepezil, an anti-Alzheimer’s disease drug, could upregulate NNCCS; intriguingly, donepezil also improved the impaired cardiac function caused by myocardial infarction in animal models due to its cholinergic activation effects. This is because it has been recognized as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that reduces HR, such as b-blockers [17-19]. Furthermore, it was previously reported that donepezil-treated Alzheimer’s patients were less susceptible to cardiovascular diseases and survived longer [20-22]. Collectively, one of the mechanisms of donepezil may involve the restoration of downregulated cholinergic tonus in the autonomic nervous system in vivo [21, 22] in addition to functioning as an NNCCS inducer.
Till date, no other NNCCS inducer has been reported [1]. Therefore, the present study was performed to identify pharmacological agents that can induce NNCCS. Mouse with heart-specific ChAT gene overexpressing (ChAT tgm), an in vivo NNCCS activated model [3], had previously shown that increased cardiac NO was responsible for the characteristic phenotypes of ChAT tgm including anti-anxiety, anti-depression, anti-stress, and anti-convulsion [4]. These results further prompted us to consider NO donors as suitable candidates for NNCCS activation.
The current study shows that SNAP, despite being a short-acting vasodilator, increased the ChAT protein expression along with enhanced NO release [23, 24]. NO donors-treated animal often exhibited decreased blood pressure [8, 25], although SNAP played another crucial role in HIF-1a induction [26].
Specifically, SNPiP gradually activated the reporter activity and protein expression of ChAT to a lower extent for over 30 h. Molecular mechanisms for the ChAT expression modes may contribute to distinctive cGMP regulation because SNPiP-treatment leads to gradual elevation of the cGMP levels. This was further confirmed by the delayed peak of NO release by SNPiP treatment. These different signal transduction patterns may cause a delayed initiation in ACh synthesis by SNPiP in vitro. SNPiP gradually upregulated the cardiac ACh content during the time course, and ACh synthesis was at its peak in the heart at 72 h. This gradual induction of cardiac ACh synthesis was expected to be advantageous as it revealed mild hemodynamic effects (HR and BP) on the SNPiP-administered animal models.
As SNPiP has the advantage of upregulating ACh synthesis specifically in the heart, but not in the skeletal muscle, it is suggested to be an inducer of NNCCS when administered in vivo. The mechanisms underlying this specific upregulation was not completely investigated in this study. However, SNPiP and SNAP differed in their chemical composition by only one functional group, which was attached to the base structure of SNAP by an amide bond. Therefore, we hypothesized that this additional group in SNPiP may contribute to this specificity as well as the long-acting ACh producing potency.
SNPiP evidently increased the cardiac hemodynamic performance (EDV, SV and CO) with comparable HR. This result suggests that SNPiP may increase cardiac wall compliance and induce more efficient dilatation of the heart. In contrast, PiP, which lacks the nitroso group, did not increase the ChAT promoter activity and ChAT protein expression. Consistently, PiP did not possess SNPiP-specific hemodynamic advantages in the heart. As a result, SNPiP (and not PiP) further elevated CO, which is associated with the increase in ESP, presumably via the law of Frank-Starling. If SNPiP rapidly decreased the vascular tone and dilated vasculature via the released NO, blood pressure should decrease with increasing HR. However, HR and BP were not significantly altered by SNPiP, rather, ESP was increased with elevated CO. These effects of SNPiP on the heart seem to be due to the slow induction of NNCCS, similar to the effects of observed in the cardiac function of ChAT tgm [3].
NO has been reported to have an LV relaxation-hastening effect to increase the diastolic LV distensibility and LV preload reserve, thereby upregulating the cardiac performance [27-29]. Therefore, SNPiP-induced improvement of diastolic function may contribute to upregulated ACh-induced NO causing cardiac function alteration. Therefore, taken together with the PiP-related results, NO derived from SNPiP may be crucial in upregulating NNCCS.
Another advantage of SNPiP-mediated cardiac modulation was that it did not increase HR, suggesting that SNPiP may not upregulate cardiac oxygen consumption. ACh and NO negatively regulates the cardiac oxygen consumption [30, 31]. Therefore, these characteristics of SNPiP, in addition to the induction of NNCCS, may render it superior to other agents. As mentioned thus far, SNPiP with a potency to increase cardiac function exhibited a good contrast to sympathetic nerve-mediated adrenergic stimulation or inotropic agents, suggesting that SNPiP has a specific advantage.
In the present study, we explored a limited number of NO donor-based chemical compounds. Therefore, we do not exclude any possibility that more potent chemicals can induce NNCCS than SNPiP. However, the results of this study suggest that SNPiP is superior to other derivatives of SNAP.
Conclusion
SNPiP was observed to activate NNCCS to increase cardiac ACh synthesis thereby contributing to an increased cardiac performance, suggesting that SNPiP may be categorized into a novel group as an NNCCS inducer.
Acknowledgements
We thank Cactus Communications Inc., Tokyo, Japan, for editing our manuscript. This manuscript has been critically checked for language by their native English speakers.
This study was partially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (JSPS KAKENHI) (C) (Grant Number: 16K08560), and partly supported by Smoking Research Foundation.
The present animal study was approved by the ethical committee of Nippon Medical School (permission number 27-0003), and all animal experiments were performed in strict accordance with the recommendations set in the ARRIVE guidelines and carried out in accordance with National Institutes of Health guide for the care and use of laboratory animals.
Disclosure Statement
There is no conflict of interests to declare.
References
|
1
Kakinuma Y, Akiyama T, Sato T. Cholinoceptive and cholinergic properties of
cardiomyocytes involving an amplification mechanism for vagal efferent
effects in sparsely innervated ventricular myocardium. FEBS J
2009;276:5111-5125. |
|
|
|
|
|
2
Kakinuma Y, Akiyama T, Okazaki K, Arikawa M, Noguchi T, Sato T. A
non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system plays a protective role in myocardium
salvage during ischemic insults. PLoS One 2012;7:e50761. |
|
|
|
|
|
3
Kakinuma Y, Tsuda M, Okazaki K, Akiyama T, Arikawa M, Noguchi T, Sato T.
Heart-specific overexpression of choline acetyltransferase gene protects
murine heart against ischemia through hypoxia-inducible
factor-1α-related defense mechanisms. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013 Jan
18;2:e004887. |
|
|
|
|
|
4
Oikawa S, Kai Y, Tsuda M, Ohata H, Mano A, Mizoguchi N, Sugama S, Nemoto T,
Suzuki K, Kurabayashi A, Muramoto K, Kaneda M, Kakinuma Y. Non-neuronal
cardiac cholinergic system influences CNS via the vagus nerve to acquire a
stress-refractory propensity. Clin Sci (Lond) 2016;130:1913-1928. |
|
|
|
|
|
5
Oikawa S, Mano A, Takahashi R, Kakinuma Y. Remote ischemic preconditioning
with a specialized protocol activates the non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic
system and increases ATP content in the heart. Int Immunopharmacol
2015;29:181-184. |
|
|
|
|
|
6
Basalay MV, Davidson SM, Gourine AV, Yellon DM. Neural mechanisms in remote
ischaemic conditioning in the heart and brain: mechanistic and translational
aspects. Basic Res Cardiol 2018;113:25. |
|
|
|
|
|
7
Kurabayashi A, Tanaka C, Matsumoto W, Naganuma S, Furihata M, Inoue K,
Kakinuma Y. Murine remote preconditioning increases glucose uptake and
suppresses gluconeogenesis in hepatocytes via a brain-liver neurocircuit,
leading to counteracting glucose intolerance. Diabetes Res Clin Pract
2018;139:288-299. |
|
|
|
|
|
8
Styś T, Styś A, Paczwa P, Szczepańska-Sadowska E, Lipkowski
AW. Decreased hypotensive responsiveness to nitric oxide donor S-nitroso
N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine (SNAP) in spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats. J
Physiol Pharmacol 1998;49:37-49. |
|
|
|
|
|
9
Rana OR, Schauerte P, Kluttig R, Schröder JW, Koenen RR, Weber C, Nolte KW,
Weis J, Hoffmann R, Marx N, Saygili E. Acetylcholine as an age-dependent
non-neuronal source in the heart. Auton Neurosci 2010;156:82-89. |
|
|
|
|
|
10
Rocha-Resende C, Roy A, Resende R, Ladeira MS, Lara A, de Morais Gomes ER,
Prado VF, Gros R, Guatimosim C, Prado MA, Guatimosim S. Non-neuronal
cholinergic machinery present in cardiomyocytes offsets hypertrophic signals.
J Mol Cell Cardiol 2012;53:206-216. |
|
|
|
|
|
11
Roy A, Fields WC, Rocha-Resende C, Resende RR, Guatimosim S, Prado VF, Gros
R, Prado MA. Cardiomyocyte-secreted acetylcholine is required for maintenance
of homeostasis in the heart. FASEB J 2013;27:5072-5082. |
|
|
|
|
|
12
Gavioli M, Lara A, Almeida PW, Lima AM, Damasceno DD, Rocha-Resende C,
Ladeira M, Resende RR, Martinelli PM, Melo MB, Brum PC, Fontes MA, Souza
Santos RA, Prado MA, Guatimosim S. Cholinergic signaling exerts protective
effects in models of sympathetic hyperactivity-induced cardiac dysfunction.
PLoS One 2014;9:e100179. |
|
|
|
|
|
13
Durand MT, Becari C, Tezini GC, Fazan R Jr, Oliveira M, Guatimosim S, Prado
VF, Prado MA, Salgado HC. Autonomic cardiocirculatory control in mice with
reduced expression of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter. Am J Physiol
Heart Circ Physiol 2015;309:H655-662. |
|
|
|
|
|
14
Roy A, Dakroub M, Tezini GC, Liu Y, Guatimosim S, Feng Q, Salgado HC, Prado
VF, Prado MA, Gros R. Cardiac acetylcholine inhibits ventricular remodeling
and dysfunction under pathologic conditions. FASEB J 2016;30:688-701. |
|
|
|
|
|
15
Kakinuma Y, Furihata M, Akiyama T, Arikawa M, Handa T, Katare RG, Sato T.
Donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor against Alzheimer's dementia,
promotes angiogenesis in an ischemic hindlimb model. J Mol Cell Cardiol
2010;48:680-693. |
|
|
|
|
|
16
Oikawa S, Iketani M, Kakinuma Y. A non-neuronal cholinergic system regulates
cellular ATP levels to maintain cell viability. Cell Physiol Biochem
2014;34:781-789. |
|
|
|
|
|
17
Handa T, Katare RG, Kakinuma Y, Arikawa M, Ando M, Sasaguri S, Yamasaki F,
Sato T. Anti-Alzheimer's drug, donepezil, markedly improves long-term
survival after chronic heart failure in mice. J Card Fail 2009;15:805-811. |
|
|
|
|
|
18
Arikawa M, Kakinuma Y, Handa T, Yamasaki F, Sato T. Donepezil,
anti-Alzheimer's disease drug, prevents cardiac rupture during acute phase of
myocardial infarction in mice. PLoS One 2011;6:e20629. |
|
|
|
|
|
19
Okazaki Y, Zheng C, Li M, Sugimachi M. Effect of the cholinesterase inhibitor
donepezil on cardiac remodeling and autonomic balance in rats with heart
failure. J Physiol Sci 2010;60:67-74. |
|
|
|
|
|
20
Sato K, Urbano R, Yu C, Yamasaki F, Sato T, Jordan J, Robertson D, Diedrich
A. The effect of donepezil treatment on cardiovascular mortality. Clin Pharmacol
Ther 2010;88:335-338. |
|
|
|
|
|
21
Nordström P, Religa D, Wimo A, Winblad B, Eriksdotter M. The use of
cholinesterase inhibitors and the risk of myocardial infarction and death: a
nationwide cohort study in subjects with Alzheimer's disease. Eur Heart J
2013;34:2585-2591. |
|
|
|
|
|
22
Wu PH, Lin YT, Hsu PC, Yang YH, Lin TH, Huang CT. Impact of acetylcholinesterase
inhibitors on the occurrence of acute coronary syndrome in patients with
dementia. Sci Rep 2015;5:15451. |
|
|
|
|
|
23
Megson IL, Greig IR, Gray GA, Webb DJ, Butler AR. Prolonged effect of a novel
S-nitrosated glyco-amino acid in endothelium-denuded rat femoral arteries:
potential as a slow release nitric oxide donor drug. Br J Pharmacol
1997;122:1617-1624. |
|
|
|
|
|
24
Eduardo da Silva-Santos J, Assreuy J. Long-lasting changes of rat blood
pressure to vasoconstrictors and vasodilators induced by nitric oxide donor
infusion: involvement of potassium channels. J Pharmacol Exp Ther
1999;290:380-387. |
|
|
|
|
|
25
Schyvens CG, Cowden WB, Zhang Y, McKenzie KU, Whitworth JA. Hemodynamic
effects of the nitric oxide donor DETA/NO in mice. Clin Exp Hypertens
2004;26:525-535. |
|
|
|
|
|
26
Kuwabara M, Kakinuma Y, Ando M, Katare RG, Yamasaki F, Doi Y, Sato T. Nitric
oxide stimulates vascular endothelial growth factor production in
cardiomyocytes involved in angiogenesis. J Physiol Sci 2006;56:95-101. |
|
|
|
|
|
27
Paulus WJ, Bronzwaer JG. Myocardial contractile effects of nitric oxide.
Heart Fail Rev 2002;7:371-383. |
|
|
|
|
|
28
Brunner F, Maier R, Andrew P, Wölkart G, Zechner R, Mayer B. Attenuation of
myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice with myocyte-specific
overexpression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Cardiovasc Res
2003;57:55-62. |
|
|
|
|
|
29
Wilson RM, De Silva DS, Sato K, Izumiya Y, Sam F. Effects of fixed-dose
isosorbide dinitrate/hydralazine on diastolic function and exercise capacity
in hypertension-induced diastolic heart failure. Hypertension
2009;54:583-590. |
|
|
|
|
|
30
Walsh EK, Huang H, Wang Z, Williams J, de Crom R, van Haperen R, Thompson CI,
Lefer DJ, Hintze TH. Control of myocardial oxygen consumption in transgenic
mice overexpressing vascular eNOS. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004;287:H2115-2121. |
|
|
|
|
|
31
Kinugawa S, Huang H, Wang Z, Kaminski PM, Wolin MS, Hintze TH. A defect of
neuronal nitric oxide synthase increases xanthine oxidase-derived superoxide
anion and attenuates the control of myocardial oxygen consumption by nitric
oxide derived from endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circ Res
2005;96:355-362. |
|